Analyze the way in which the Surrounded grounds its narrative in the Essay

Analyze the way in which the Surrounded grounds its narrative in the relationship of geographic space and indian identity. what do you make of the text's narrative landscape - Essay Example The paternal conflict between Max Leon and his sons, including his flawed connection with his wife Catharine brings forth the convergence in the novel. Catharine is the daughter of Running Wolf, an honorable Salish Indian man and known as faithful Catharine after her recent conversion. The bridges burned between them and the mostly disappointing offspring they have conceived together. Max, the patriarch of the family, was imprisoned for a crime his sons it appears hascommitted. Stealing cattle, the sheriff failed to arrest the Leon boys. After his release, Max built a grander house for his own and left his wife in the log cabin. The relationship between husband and wife is a testament to the undeniably challenging relationship among Native Americans and the immigrant Europeans. The life they shared seemed but mangled years of disconnect. Epitomized in the novel is the diversity among two immense cultural groups and their inability to understand one another despite their passive aggressive attempt to do so. It exemplifies the clash in culture that was brought upon by the influx of European immigration to the Americas. This brought upon detraction from the traditional way of life and a shift to the technologically advance European innovations. Life as the Natives knew it was swiftly becoming obsolete as the need to cope with the modern white men increases. Tribal cultures were in essence destroyed that it insinuated a feeling of alienation, opposition or inert tolerance to the fate they cannot possibly escape. Families, communities and people lost not only their lands but their identities in the process. But above all these, Mc Nickle painted the inherent connotative perceptions each group possesses for the other. This constitutes an undeniable conflict of contradiction and passivity. Yet it identifies a certain sense of self-awareness and of condescension for each other. Descending from a MÃ ©tis Indian lineage while his

Exam essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Exam - Essay Example Family owned businesses tend to feel that the business environment around them is not secure enough for them to venture into the unknown (Cromie et al. 1995, p.11). Lyman Orchards is an example of such a family owned business venture which, despite having existed for more than two hundred years and been run by multiple generations of the Lyman family, it has not been able to grow into a multinational conglomerate as has been the case with non-family businesses such as McDonald’s and Target. Moreover, unlike non-family businesses, family businesses do not rely on formal planning and instead, their management systems are based on less formal control as well as fewer incentives. The informal nature of such businesses is often based on their being wholly owned and managed by members of the same family and these do not need personal incentives to work in the business because they work for themselves. In family businesses such as Toyota and Samsung, members of their founding families have been active members since they were founded and this has been as a result of the long tradition as well as personal interest that has been established over the years. When it comes to finance, non-family firms have the advantage because they can easily gain finances through making offers at the stock market (Coleman and Carsky 1999, p.73). This is not the case with family firms, which if the owners do not have ready finances to invest in the business might bring about financial ruin. Therefore, while family owned businesses are more likely than not to achieve greater profitability than non-family businesses, the latter have an advantage because they achieve higher growth levels. A family business such as the Trump Organization faced some financial problems in its history as a result of being internally financed by the owners and such a scenario becomes extremely

Exam 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Exam 2 - Essay Example Restriction on occupying white land was another driver to the revolution agenda. The fact that the colonialists restricted the activities that could be carried out by the people, it was definite that settlement was also unbalanced (Tidal and Shi 77). There were areas restricted to entry and occupation this had to be resisted as it made others feel that they were inferior and sidelined thus triggering resistance that lead to reforms. The weight of taxation fell on the back of the people. This, however, never performed its task as expected by the people. Thus, the re developed zero tolerance to the high and unfair system of taxation. The government had to model an acceptable taxation system. The end result in this case was reforms that were to benefit the people and relieve them of the unfair governance as had been manifested before. Debts to the merchants of Europe prompted loyalty prevalence among the two countries. The resultant event that followed was revolution so as to improve terms of relation. There had to be a good government to ensure proper use and settling of the debt. Thus, the government had to set up reforms in the manner that it was called for. Development of national consciousness throughout due to the advancement in knowledge also leads to the revolution. The people became more aware and concerned about their rights. As a result, they pressed on for issues that they felt were not in order to the positive. This became so massive that reforms were inevitable. The whole system had to do things the right way so that the people could see the benefits associated with every action. The fact that the people became more watchful was a sign of enlighten that played a big role in revolution. Conflict of class also came in as other people were sidelined. The rich felt that this was not the right way to go, they had to find a way of sharing the powers as such they pushed for the reforms. Revolutionary conspiracy took center

Report outline Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Report - Outline Example g cart into the UK will assist the marketer or company on whether there are factors that will play a role in achieving the business plan or it will highlight the obstacles that will act as a barrier in bringing an American hot dog cart into the UK (Griffin, 2010, 161). PEST analysis will be significant in measuring the growth or plan of bringing an American hot dog cart into the UK. It will highlight the political, economic, social and technological factors that may influence both negatively or positively the plan of introducing the cart into the UK market (Griffin, 2010, 161). The 4Ps will assist in marketing the cart into the UK markets as they will provide both the marketer with information regarding the product, price, place and promotional strategies used by to capture the markets (Cowan, 2012, 61). It will involve market Penetration into the UK market. Secondly, there will be market development of the product in the UK. Thirdly, there will product development of the American hot dog cart into the UK market. Lastly, the American hot dog cart will be exposed through a stage of diversification to improve on the carts used for transporting hot dogs (Dransfield, 2004,

UAE School Learning System Essay Example for Free

UAE School Learning System Essay The education structure of UAE was formalized in 1953, with establishment of government funded public school system. Since then, this structure has been implemented across all the seven Emirates. Today, there are 780 public schools with approximate strength of 3 hundred thousand students across the entire UAE. The pattern of school system is formulated on standard western approach that consists of primary and secondary schools (Samaha and Shishakly, 2008). Students start their educational journey by enrolling in primary schools, which takes five years complete. The second stage spans over four years followed by the secondary schools that take another three years to complete. During the same phase, the emphasis of education has also shifted underwent a profound change to reflect the advances made in recent years in fields of information technology, shared learning, collaborative participation and leadership development among students. This paper focuses on these changes experienced by UAE education system that have helped to keep it robust and synchronized with evolving concept of education and pedagogy world wide (Felner et al. 1997). Reasons for Change in UAE School System With the advent of information technology, the former isolated model of education faced challenges that have stimulated it to transform side by side with events of rapid globalization, information technology, knowledge-driven economy, international change towards sustainable social and community developments, increased level of international interaction, competition and collaboration (Samaha and Shishakly, 2008).. Under the immense impact of these changes the UAE educational system also felt the need to incorporate numerous educational reforms and to keep it up to date and upgrade. The efforts of UAE policy-makers and educators to reform education and prepare next generations for meeting challenges of the future must be seen and understood in this context. (Cheng, 2003a, b; Hirsch Weber, 1999; Kogan Hanney, 2000; Mingle, 2000). Consistent with this approach in change is also the understanding that in a fast hanging era that educational reforms can not limit themselves to mere incorporation of information technology in its static form, but that they must absorb the philosophy of continuous action learning, creativity enhancement, and multiple intelligence development as the key elements for continued development of entire student community in view of information technology and evolution of a knowledge-based economy ((Samaha and Shishakly, 2008). Therefore, the concepts of organizational learning, collaborative partnership, shared experience, knowledge management and institutional intelligence are being inculcated the institutional level to oversee their effective transformation from confines of board room to class room(Langer, Colton, Goff, 2003). Another important facet of latest educational reforms is emphasis on creativity and lateral thinking, which are believed to be instrumental in setting up platform for lifelong accumulation of learning, action learning and continued development of intelligence. It is believed that through assimilation of these new approaches, students could be better equipped to meet with the challenges of globalization and technological changes. As a matter of fact, the major thrust of educators, both in policy and implementation, is towards action learning which is construed as fundamental in increasing the learner’s capacity to take a higher learning curve, both from intelligence and knowledge point of view (Felner et al. 1997). Schools as Learning Communities The concept of schools as learning communities has gained ground internationally where educators have come forward with idea of creating a system that would include a focus on academic achievements along with wholesome development of children, covering their emotional, analytical and personality development to help them attain a productive role in the society (Felner et al. 1997). These ideas have come forward from learning form former educational system, whose curriculum, educators felt, created a gap between intellectual, emotional and interpersonal needs of students and academic education. Thus, it impeded their learning and preparatory abilities for adulthood, along introducing a degree of vulnerability against rapid pace of global technical changes. Collaborative Learning: From the experience gained from various models of teachings practiced around the world, educators have learned that collaborative learning is among the most effective tool for imparting effective and lasting teaching to children. The premises behind collaborative learning is that students learn best when they learn together through active collaboration and participation (Felner et al. 1997). Class room research has shown that collaborative learning, which inspires students to learn in small groups is much more effective than any other form of instruction in helping them understand and retain the content. It also imparts greater degree of satisfaction to students. Adult Learning Theory: Understanding the encompassing role of education, educators have also focused on evolving new models of adult learning, in recognition of the fact that maturity and understanding level of adults sits in a completely different zone as compared to children. According to the rules set by Malcom Knowles, adult learning approaches takes in cognizance of that fact that adults are autonomous and self directed and hence the teachers need to create an expansive environment where adults are able to appreciate their own independent role in directing their course of study. Thus participation, leadership and delegation of responsibilities become effective strategies in course of adult learning models, all which aiming to provide maximum degree of self control and reliance (Langer, Colton, Goff, 2003). Meanwhile, educators have also learned to take in the life experience and knowledge factor of adults to further the goals of learning. One of the great benefit with adult teaching is that each adult has, at one point or other, something relevant to share with others, drawn out by his/her own experience pool and knowledge. Thus, the learning gets more effective and comprehensive. Also, adults are very goal oriented and practical (Samaha and Shishakly, 2008).. The time they are investing in education is either their productive time or time away from their family and hence they want maximum utilization and returns for their efforts. Educators, who have learned to appreciate these facts, have truly provided a very meaningful angel to concept of adult learning philosophy (Felner et al. 1997). Community: The present educational model lays a heavy emphasis on concept of community and shared learning. Information technology and internet has played fundamental role in furthering the concept of community where people with similar interest areas, like thinking and shared concepts get together to felicitate each other’s learning in a collaborative approach. Community is a inclusive approach in educational field where one to one instructional approach is replaced by learning through group interaction and active participation and sharing of knowledge among the members of the community. Even the role of educator, at times is not more than a member of the community. Community is an extremely useful concept in field of adult learning, specially for young adults who have high degree of familiarity with informational technology tools. Leadership: Modern educators have shed the ideas of passive education and pedantic teaching. The dynamics of global change have impressed them with creating leadership potential in every student. While certainly, there are no definite copy-book rules to construct a leader (Langer, Colton, Goff, 2003). The difficulties, complexities, and challenges associated with a situation give impetus to leadership qualities in otherwise ordinary people who believe in themselves that they are capable of rising up to the difficulties as well as helping others out of it. Therefore although it might be difficult to ‘teach’ a person quality of good leader, yet one can expect to inculcate leadership qualities by observing styles and principles of successful leaders. Leadership is then about inspiration, motivation, encouragement and direction that pulls people to accomplishments that they would not had managed if left alone (Felner et al. 1997). However, effective leadership is a very challenging domain as it requires some impeccable personal and organizational traits that can be developed and realized through considerable experience, knowledge and self- discipline. There are no fixed guidelines, set of rules and laws that exactly prescribe the traits, qualities and attributes of a successful leader. Quite often the leadership is situational and the leader is required to act purely through intuition and circumstantial requirements. However there are certain essential skills and characteristics that are rather mandatory for effective leadership are (Day and Halpin, 2004)

Pre Industrial England 1450-1750

Pre Industrial England 1450-1750 Pre-industrial England was a period that laid the foundation for the industrial revolution. Its too vast with numerous changes that may seem to contradict itself if confined to a single definition. In the early beginnings of the period, the ratio of population to land was low, with small rural communities heavily engaged in agriculture. Markets were imperfect, along with simple/sluggish technology mostly because, the pre-industrial man was unaccustomed to innovation or simply did not see the need for cost reducing innovations. The method of production was mostly labor intensive with little capital equipment if any at all. The description thus far is fitting for the period 1450-1650. During this period population growth fluctuated widely, mostly because of famines and diseases. It is worthy to note that the family was the foundation of the home economy and in aggregation the essence of the pre-industrialized economy. The family structure was the source of knowledge, wealth and in many cases legitimacy (particularly in the case of women). During this age, England was a pyramid of status. Ownership of land was the materialization of status and the quickest way to political leverage. This set in motion the incentive for development: the desire to acquire more land through the plouging back of profits into the purchase of land. It was during this time that the concept of RENT was developed. Though the industrial revolution started in Britain, during the period 1450-1650 England was behind its continental counterparts in almost every economic respect. Though population growth fluctuated, it had an upward trend; unfortunately the primitive economy was unable to absorb this surplus labor. Consequently, pre-industrial Britain was plagued with unemployment and underemployment. As if the latter was not bad enough, high mortality rates forced a young population to work and an overwhelming climate of beggars and vagabonds emerged. One interesting way the economy sought to absorb the excess labor was through the immigrations of this surplus to cities e.g. London. Europe had long been competing among itself for new markets and raw materials. This led to the beginning of colonialization and the discovery of new lands. Britain had long been and persisted to be an exporter of mostly raw materials. Before boats and new trading routes were invented and discovered, trading was problematic and capital accumulation was down right impossible. The medium of exchange was poorly defined and barter proved to be complex because of the double coincidence of wants. In the mid 15th century, there was an evident shift in the export of raw materials to manufactured goods, mostly the export of cloth. (refer to Fig 1 p 50) Very quickly cloth export accounted for 2/3 of all exports, most of which were destined for colonial territories and Low Countries. In light of this positive change, England was still largely a primary product producer, as such; they had a high import dependency on continental Europe. Through immigration, England was able to import new skills and techniques and in some cases capital. While England began to harness the power of this intake, there was a discovery of gold in South America. This made capital accumulation a little less difficult and further fueled trade. Though industrial jobs were seasonal because productive activities were predominantly dependant on the seasonality of crops, glimpses of urbanization could be seen. Artisans and craftsmen were the first manufacturers who often worked with just an apprentice; their capital formation was small, nevertheless, growing. The location of industries were dependent on the labor supply and occupations of all nature started to emerge and change continually as taste, fads and fashion change. In the book, the economy of England 1450-1750 by D.C. Coleman: England was described as having habit of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦borrowing and improving, rather than inventingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Though homegrown inventions occurred, this habit was embedded in the English national trait. In light of this copy cat approach of the English, from the 17th to 18th century, English patents had increased drastically. Patents in this case are used as a proxy to represent the quantity of inventions/innovations. See fig. 2 p 154. In brief, English industry in the century from 1650 to 1750 can exhibit a variety of innovations, some of a radical nature in that they are represented injections of capital equipment which had the effect of raising productivity. Some involved a new use of power-driven machinery or opened up new possibilities therein, for example, in silk-throwing or cotton-spinning, some saw a replacement of one important input in the production process by another, for example, coal for charcoal, steam and atmospheric pressure for horse- or man power. The quote above taken from the economy of England 1450-1750 by D.C. Coleman, adequately sums up the importance and impact of the innovations taken place in England at the time. Pre-industrial England (Analysis) Why was the pre-industrial age the way it was? Or, how did it transform into the industrial revolution? I will seek to explain or find some bearings to answer these hard questions. My analysis will be confined to a few fundamental elements of capitalism: property rights, capital accumulation, profit motive, institutions, and level of technology and government intervention. It is known that low labor productivity, poor education, high fertility and mortality rates along with the dominance of physical over human capital plagued the pre-industrial period. The reverse is true when compared to modern societies, which is characterized by low fertility rates and extreme emphasize on human capital. What accounted for the spurts in population growth that forced the surplus labor to immigrate to the cities? With little education and sluggish technology there was roughly an average level of human capital. Earnings and benefit from investing in human capital were both low, and the typical agricultural laborer earned their maximum income at age 20.. Thus, parents would choose quantity as opposed to quality in child bearing; this sheds some light on the reasons population boom. High mortality rates also forced parents to reproduce at a high rate and began to prepare an army of labor that flourished during the industrial revolution. The number of patents issued (used as a proxy for capital accumulation) signals the rate of capital accumulation and developments in technology. Of course, these changes pale in comparison to modern standards but it laid a foundation that was essential to the industrial revolution. Reference was made in the overview regarding Britains culture of borrowing and improving, this also sought to cement the foundation of technological changes during this period. The pre-industrial mans desire for status and political accomplishment along with the desire to be favored by the crown, propelled the pre-industrial age. Granted, at a slow rate. This was mostly done through the conquering of new lands and meager changes (compared to modern standards) to productive activities. Imperfect markets were able to a limited extent however, to fuel the industrial mans profit motives. Nevertheless, this remains one of the few underlying elements of capitalism that never wavered or seems to fade. The pre-industrial age was preserved through the family structure, and the family structure was preserved through the ownership of lands. All the essential elements of capitalism were in existence and growing in every respect during this primitive age. True, it has evolved since, but that is not a demerit, rather, the reason why its able to survive all these years. At the heart of this period, the crown/state/government played a most vital role in industrial planning. Colonies were set up, trade agreements were made, and many accomplishments were made in the name of the crown. The crown was very much involved in Britains development. The states role and power had changed remarkably over the years, but we include it as an essential element of capitalism to illustrate the crucial role of government in jump starting an economy. Industrialization (750-1830) The industrial revolution was basically a fundamental change in the structure of Britains economy. It was the reallocation of resources away from agriculture. Britain being the first nation to become industrialized in the mid 18th century experienced rapid growth. These high growth rates would involve changes in every aspect of the economy. Britain rich iron, coal and reliable source of waterpower were essential to the industrial revolution. Colonies around the world supplied Britain with raw materials e.g. cotton and wheat and served as a market place for manufactured cloth. These colonies helped to stimulate the textile and iron industries, the wealth then generated by these two industries is what drove the industrial revolution. The steam engine was the greatest innovation of the industrial revolution because it became an instrument for applying basic innovations in many industries and transport. In the 1800s industries such as cotton spinning and iron was dependent on the steam engine. Landowning and farming wealth flowed to investment for improving land and transport while commercial wealth flowed to industry. Institutions created incentives and encourage innovation for entrepreneurs. The acceleration of industrial development was facilitated by the emergence of institutions such as financial systems, legal systems, and social institutions. Since the economy was growing at a steady pace, financial systems were needed to support this profound change: the established of the banking system in the 1690s. The banking system began to mobilize savings more widely after the 1750s. The bank of England, the London private bank and the country bankers made up the banking system. The problem with capital accumulation in the 18th century was one of establishing a tube by which capital could flow from the groups who were making the savings to those who really needed the credit. During the industrial revolution laws were enforced which required all land to be fenced at the expense of the owners. This caused many families to borrow from banks. Women and children made up 75% of the workers, this was because they were easily manipulated into accepting low wages which kept the cost of production low and profits high. Children were preferred since they had smaller hands; which was often needed to fit into parts of the machines. The laissez faire approach of the government allowed capitalism to flourish. There was little or no government regulations imposed upon factory policies. In the industrial ages the states role was basically to institutionalize social and economic forces and to provide security at home and abroad in which market forces would operate. Since they worked 18hrs per day they spent no real time together as a family, hence the industrial revolution contributed to the break down of the family unit. The living conditions were horrible because the cities became over crowded. Families lived in factory houses. These houses had no more than three to four rooms, more than one family then had to occupy a room. Other families who couldnt afford the rent of the factory houses lived in slums with little sanitation, as a result mortality rates were high (infant mortality rates were 50%) The legal system endorsed property rights and extended the concept of property to such assets as shares, bills of exchange, bank notes and patents. There was a pyramid concerned with land use. At the top there were the landowners, they comprised of temporal lords, gentlemen and freeholders (better sort and lesser). The lesser freeholders were the ones who owned and tilled their own land. They formed the middle class, the employing class who were the backbone of the agricultural economy. The others rented their land to the second group who where the land cultivators. These land cultivators formed a mixed group; which included small freeholders, owner-cultivators, the family-worked farm, the small holders and squatters. The third group, which was the base of the pyramid were the farm laborers; the proletariats. In the 18th century government began to intervene by implementing factory act, which aimed at securing the welfare of children. Industrial revolution Analysis This analysis will be based on the fundamental elements of capitalism: property rights, capital accumulation, profit motive, institutions, and level of technology and government intervention. It will answer why and how these elements changed/ developed during the industrial ages. Unlike the pre-industrial age capital accumulation wasnt as difficult. The emergence of foreign trade and the banking system made capital accumulation easier. Now the question is how and why these systems did emerge? Capital was accumulated through property ownership but also with the expansion of trade, that is: as trade increased, more money was demanded which was later provided for by gold and silver. The foundation of the bank of England in 1694 was part of a deal made between the government, (desperately short of finance in wartime) and the leading merchants and financers. Capital goods industries began to emerge mainly because of worldwide industrialization and the increased accumulation of capital through investment. This development led to mass production, and was responsible for the increase in British iron output during the 1830-1840 and continued to increase until the 1880s which also led to an increase in the employment of coalminers. The expansion of these industries changed most of the social problems that were present in the initial phase of industrialization: it gave unskilled workers better paid jobs, and improved working conditions which increased dramatically in the 1850s. The profit motive has been the driving force towards industrial capitalism. It encourages firms to operate more efficiently thus, promoting competition among rival firms. It served as the catalyst for production, distribution and consumption. Why did the level of technology change? Because of changing demand and the enlarged size of the markets promoted the development of new methods of production, often through innovation and adaptation of already existing technology. POST INDUSTRIALISATION The post industrialized period, is defined in this paper as that span of time in which Britains economy began to make the transition between what can be termed as Industrial Capitalism to Financial Capitalism. This simply means a decline in Britains manufacturing industry and growth of the financial sector. Why the manufacturing industry declined? To address this we need to consider many factors: the first important factor to is seen as the change in the power of the people that is the labor laws reforms and the electoral laws reforms. During the early and mid years of the industrialized period there was little power for the working class, they had no right to vote unless they owned property. They had no voice in the workplace, no way of expressing their displeasure and swift and harsh actions were taken against those who refused to obey the law.. Coming to the end of the industrial period and into the post, there were a number of reforms and acts introduced to change this fundamental problem within Britain. Firstly in 1871 trade unions were made legal, and they were allowed to strike. However it was not until 1875 that the legal act, Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act, was implemented to allow workers to peacefully strike at their place of work. But after terms of revolts in the working populace, into being came the Labor government party, and during their term (1906) they brought into being the Trade Disputes Act, which declared that unions could not be sued for damages done during a strike. In this respect, the power of the working class grew tremendously as compared to the earlier years of industrialization. But these Labor laws were not the only important reforms being made during this period to address the power of the people; in fact they went synonymously with the reforms being made to the electoral system. In the mid 18th century, The Great Reform Act (1832) gave vote to only male householders who held a certain amount of property. In time it was evident that this act was generally met with an outcry from the working population who paid taxes. This displeasure of the populace led to a Second Reform Act (1867) which allowed many of the working class men living in towns to cast a vote. However this system was still at fault because voting was done in the open and men were forced to stoop to pressures of their employers and landowners, that is- to vote in their interest. So upon recognition by the aforementioned, the labor government party introduce The Secret Ballot which allowed men to vote in seclusion, away from the pressures of their employers and land owners. But the second reform act was still deemed inadequate because it still failed to capture a decent proportion of the population, so came The Third Reform Act, in 1884. This new act now gave voting rights to adult male householders in Britain- which encompasses those living in the country areas. But with the exclusion of women, the system was still insufficient. After many womens rights movement there was a new act passed called the People Act of 1918 which gave voting rights to all men over the age of 21 and all women over the age of 30. This single act propelled the size of the electorate from 7.7 million to 21.8 million! This was not the end however, soon after the Equal Franchise Act of 1928 gave voting rights to all women over the age of 21 on the same terms the men had. And then finally, a new Representation of the People Act gave voting rights to everyone over the age of eighteen. The changes in the electoral and labor laws caused the emergence of a new phenomenon in Britain. The wants and demands of the people were now stronger and more politicians were more eager to meet them. Given the new found power of the populace, workers were now entitled to a larger share of the Gross Domestic Product (in future will be addressed as GDP). The general standard of living was now a principle that could no longer be ignored; the happiness of the entire Britains populace was now the centre focus of all politicians and no longer only the sole happiness of the entrepreneurs. As such some manufacturers found it unprofitable to keep on running when they can no longer access cheap labor, and governments found it necessary to implement many social safety nets to keep its populace happy. As stated before, addressing why the manufacturing industry declined we need to look at many factors, so far the populaces power has been addressed. The next important issue that needs attention is that of world trade. The British economy at the beginning of the industrialized period was well noted for some of the greatest inventions in the world. They were at one point in time even addressed as the workshop of the world. This advantage Britain had over the world market stemmed from their great inventions, namely; the stream engine, the railway train, the coke burning blast furnace, the power loom, the spinning jenny and the water frame. In time, the increasing globalization that took place in the latter years of the industrialized period caused her to lose this advantage. Aero planes and motorcars were made by the French, German and American inventors, thus, the comparative advantage Britain held significantly declined in the later years of its industrialized period. In the early years of industrialization Britain had rich coal and iron ore near the surface, but by the mid 19th century all the cheaply accumulated coal and iron were gone. Although there were deeper reserves, the advantage of the resource endowment significantly decreased. That being said, the British population growth began to significantly slow down in the late 19th century at that critical time when the American population began to grow rapidly. The power of British rivals increased rapidly, via their population growth and innovations as such Britains power in the world market was proportionately reduced and their manufacturing industries were left behind. . Britain was deemed as lucky to procure investors within its economy to help propel it during its industrial ages. Heading steep into the 20th century it was evident that an agglomeration of capital was invested in foreign industries, since the British investors saw it as more profitable to establish business overseas. It was a good investment for the British entrepreneurs but it also helped develop industries abroad, those industries to rival that of Britains. The invention of the railway and the telegraph system in the mid 19th century encouraged banks to expand and establish branches distances away from the main offices. Many people lost money when they invested into small banks, so government regulations were introduced to make it easier for larger banking groups to be formed. There was security in any particularly large bank. In mid 19th century The Bank Charter Act was introduced in order to reassure customers that their dollar invested in the bank was equivalent to gold sovereigns. This particular regulation had an enormous effect on bankers everywhere, the bigger banks became even more secure than the smaller ones, and as such mergers became ultimately inevitable. The Midland bank was a small bank founded in 1836 by Charles Greach. But by the late 20th century there were 200 branches of the Midland Bank stationed in London alone. It was clear; mergers were now a common thing within Britains financial industry. Britains financial sector continued to grow until it became a landmark within it one of the largest and richest cities in the world London. Britain had developed other major financial institutions such as the London Stock Exchange and The Commodity Market. This city had become known as the center of the worlds finances. Britains current account deficit at the time would have led to a crisis but the foreign investments Britain had secured were more than enough to cancel out the trade deficit. It is common knowledge that Britain had fought two world wars and surprisingly enough these foreign investments helped finance the wars. Britain had run up massive debt during the First World War, particularly with the United States of America, she had claimed to borrow an estimate of  £959 million. This was not the end however; even with the great lost in wealth (approximately a quarter of Britains wealth was lost) there was an introduction of liberal economic policies, which pushed Britains economy further down with slow growth rates and high unemployment. The national debt had increased 11 times what it used to be. Britain also had a streak of bad debts as she could not have expected repayment from loans given to Russia because of the communist takeover, nor could she expect the loans she lent to France because of the war damages France had incurred. To manage her empire Britain decided to implement her Ten Year Rule, it stated that she did not expect to fight another war for at least ten years. As such there were major defense budget cuts to make up for the debt owed. This impact as would be expected further restricted Britains foreign policies. So the impact of the First World War significantly influenced and restricted Britains empire. Continuing into the early 20th century, Britain felt the wraith of the American economy In the 1930s Britain experienced unemployment of 22.8%, but then a decrease to 13.9% in 1936 to 10% in 1938. But also, Traditional industries such as textiles and coal mining were severely affected by the depression. So it was evident that there was even further decline in the manufacturing sector during this period. There was also deflation in the economy at the 1930s as prices for food and rent fell by approximately 15%. Into the Second World War Britain plummeted, and it emerged in greater financial upheaval. It lost about an average of 12% of its productive capacity. By the 1940s British exports were in a decline by 35% as compared to 1935. Britain had almost exhausted its gold and dollar reserves on ammunitions, raw materials and some industrial equipment. Britain had even borrowed a further $31.4 billion dollars from the United States, as it was estimated near bankruptcy. So after the Second World War, Britain had lost support from the United States lend lease program, which was said to be the life support of Britain at that time. Now with its huge lost in wealth the two world wars began to take its toll on Britain. So after supporting Britain in the wars, countries demanded their independence, and decolonization started with Indias independence in 1947. Britain was also losing its old markets as commonwealth agreements were made to only do regional trade with local and regional entities. It is here Britain took a strong structural change from the manufacturing industry towards the services industry, in this regard many industrialized parts of Britain was left in a steady state. There were then packages with the intent of nationalization, as government tried to take hold of the economy. Devaluation of the pound was made, Britains economy still experienced low growth rates, and the new Labor government was unable to solve the problem. In came the famous Margaret Thatcher who implemented many economic reforms, leading to deregulation and privatization of major industries. Competition policy was the forefront of her ideology which replaced that of industrial policy. This resulted in high unemployment rates, but subsequently led to significant increases in growth rates. The British economy continued to experience rapid growth straight into the 1990s, with the exception for the recession experienced in the early quarters of the 1990s. Advances in technology continued to help the British economy and the conservatives kept rule until 1997, when they were taken over by Tony Blairs labor party. Blair introduced policies to reduce unemployment, gave power to the Bank of England to set interest rates and then introduced the minimum wage in Britain. But the Blair government decided to stick with the spending plans of the conservatives, and the economy kept on moving. Heading into the 21st century, the labor party increased taxes and borrowing, utilizing the money for public services. The growth rates in this era were kept constant, but the pound value fluctuated. The Britain kingdom was fairly well off, during the 21st century until it experienced the 2008 great recession, which was deemed as the worst recession since the Second World War. POST INDUSTRIALIZATION ANALYSIS As stated in the beginning, this period is defined as that in which Britains economy made a transition from a manufacturing based system to a financial based system. The aim of our paper is to understand how capitalism changed (transitioned) from the previous periods into this one. We have noted that this change in Britains economy was not the result of one particular factor; it was the agglomeration of many important fragments. It had begun with the simultaneous changes in the populace, capital accumulation and world trade. But it was more so propelled by the impacts of the two world wars and the many changes that stemmed from them. As compared to the previous two periods it was realized that the people of Britain had no say in any decisions being made for the country unless they had some significant amount of capital. Due to many constitutional reforms by the state this defining phenomenon of the populace had changed. The force behind these reforms came from pressures behind new founded labor institutions such as the trade unions. The need of these institutions, however, had originally stemmed from the pressure the industrialized period placed on its laborers. The world trade had laid upon Britain an enchantment of the profit motive. But guided by policy systems and development of financial institutions the profit motive inhibited growth in Britains domestic investment. This restriction led to a gradual decrease in Britains comparative advantage in the industrial world market. But although the profit motive had caused Britain to eventually export more than they import, it had changed Britains national accounting figures. So the profit motive had transformed Britains economy as it became more dependent on increases in invisible trade and not so much on the production and exports of goods. Capital accumulation and the profit motive however were not the sole signatories to the reforms in Britain, its necessary to make mention of the impact of technology on the system. At the beginning of the industrial period Britain had the advantage because they had the best technology in the world. But this did not stay as such, since given time, the major inventions in the world were not British. Some argue this was because technology booms are random and usually are only directly affected by significant investments in research and development. Britain had fought two world wars and it had emerged victorious but not without its economical burdens. After the first world war Britain had to restrict is international polices as it incurred major national debt. But after the Second World War, Britain was hanging on to America to keep functioning. It had lost nations due to demand for decolonization, and it lost world markets due to new trade restrictions from Caribbean countries. The promotion of deregulation, privatization, and competition polices let to a recovery of the economy. Monetary policies were transformed- allowing the Bank of England to set interest rates. These changes promoted massive growth of the British economy and the recovery of the system. It is also during this time frame that the government made decisions that define post industrialization today. The government set their famous safety nets in this period. They set: minimum wages, increase taxes and increase their public services. These safety nets are what vastly distinguish this period from previous ones, in the two previous ages there was no concern for the well being of the British populace as compared to the post industrial age. Britains Development via Industrialization A Critical Analysis As outlined in the heart of this paper Britain had traveled through three periods each leading successfully to the next. The paper seeks to illustrate how essential the fundamental elements of capitalism are to a nations development. It identifies the uniqueness of capitalism and its resilience in light of contradictory forces. There had been fierce debate over the roles of government and the effectiveness/fairness of protectionist policies in national development. Contrary to modern literature and advocates for free trade, Britains advantage in the industrial period (protection of infant industries) was maintained by strong protectionist measures and governments hand at each door step of the economy, (from the 17th to 18th centuries). The philosophy/ideology of mercantilism reigned for at least a hundred years: the belief that the source of a nations wealth is through the barring of imports whilst boosting exports. This gave Britains industries an advantage of a hundred years. Sectors were able to develop, change and learn from their mistakes. Most importantly, they were able to become efficient and specialist within their fie

Power of Images to Influence and Inform

Power of Images to Influence and Inform Images of Perfection in an Imperfect World. Abstract The power of images to influence and inform cannot be underestimated. This is especially true in contemporary society, where we are continually bombarded with images and with the messages implicit in them. The messages they emit are far-reaching, pervasive, and overwhelming in sheer magnitude. Most importantly: they are perfect. Photographs of beauty queens and movie stars the nearly perfect people who are the icons of society are manipulated so that the images are of true perfection. Blemishes dissolve, complexions glow, pounds melt away, and teeth sparkle as technology works its magic. When these images appear in the format of magazines targeted at young people, all of society should be concerned. What messages are informing the thoughts of youth today? How are they reacting? What can we do if we see that damage is being done? This paper will address that question, with a particular emphasis on the print publications aimed at girls and young women, who are statistically more apt to be bombarded with unattainable goals in the form of endless images of perfection. The people apparently in control of these publications particularly editors should have the authority to control that content, to redirect and or redistribute it to present more realistic views to their readers. This is particularly when faced, as they are, with evidence that the messages they are disseminating are harmful to large numbers of young people. In the case of young women who suffer from eating disorders, that evidence is in fact overwhelming. This paper intends to demonstrate the harm that is being done to young people globally, and most especially to young women, and the responsibility of the media to be accountable for content or at the very least, to stop airbrushing all the blemishes and imperfections they may see on original images, and present a more realistic and attainable vision of reality to those who seek it in their pages. Liz Jones When Liz Jones, who was then editor of the women’s magazine Marie Claire, resigned from the magazine, it was not a sudden decision. It was, rather, the culmination of a lifetime of experiences as a female member of society, followed by years working in a business that had a great influence on females in society. Quite simply: she had had enough. She explained publicly the reasons she decided to step down from her position as editor at Marie Claire, and she did so with heartfelt emotion and compelling clarity. First, she described her feelings earlier that year as she sat through another season of high fashion: modeling spectacles in which all eyes are upon myriads of unnaturally thin young women the ‘supermodels’: For those used to the fashion industry there was nothing unusual about the shows at all. But for me it was the end, it was then that I decided to resign as editor of Marie Claire magazine. I had reached the point where I had simply had enough of working in an industry that pretends to support women while it bombards them with impossible images of perfection day after day, undermining their self-confidence, their health and hard-earned cash (Jones, 2001). Jones goes on to explain the sequence of events that, together, resulted in her resignation. One of the most important factors was the considerable effort she had put into a campaign to effect profound change on the media’s approach to and impact on young women. The campaign was met with such vehement hostility that she found it extremely difficult to continue to be involved with this part of the industry. Just one year earlier, she notes, she had optimistic beliefs unrealistic, perhaps about the prospects for change: ‘I believed wholeheartedly that we could stop magazines and advertisers using underweight girls as fashion icons’ she wrote (2001). She had already proscribed articles about diets and weight-loss, which was an action that was far ahead of its time. This was clearly a step in the right direction but she knew that it was not enough. As part of an experiment, she decided to publish the same edition with two covers one of size-six Pamela Anderson, and one with the fleshier size twelve Sophie Dahl. Marie Claire then asked readers to choose ‘between the skinny, cosmetically enhanced â€Å"perfection†, or a more attainable, but still very beautiful curvy woman’ (2001). There was literally no contest; Sophie Dahl clearly won the support of the readers. The reaction that followed the contest was ‘staggering’, Jones noted. A media frenzy ensued; universities wanted to include it in their course curricula; filmmakers made documentaries about it; and, perhaps most tellingly, an unprecedented number of readers reacted and responded with enthusiastic and overwhelming support. However, the one group whose cooperation was most expected and most needed other members of the industry refused to rally. Jones found no support from her colleagues; instead, they reacted with a vehemence and aggression that both stunned and saddened her. ‘The very people from whom I had expected the most support my fellow female editors were unanimous in their disapproval’, Jones wrote. ‘They were my peers, friends, and colleagues I sat next to in the front row of the fashion shows. They were also the most important, influential group of women in the business, the only people who could change the fashion and beauty industry’ (2001). Some labeled her a ‘traitor’; others suggested that she was using this campaign as some sort of clever ploy to boost circulation numbers. She was even accused of discrimination against thin models. Model agencies began to blacklist the magazine. Despite this, Jones redoubled her efforts. She even spoke publicly about her own struggles with eating disorders. From the age of eleven, she admitted, she was plagued with the eating disorder anorexia a disorder that lasted well into her twenties. Because of this, she explained, she was very able to understand how deleterious it was for young women to subsist on ‘a daily diet of unrealistically tiny role models gracing the pages of the magazines’ that they are addicted to, as she was (Jones, 2001). Furthermore, she does not lay blame on the publications exclusively; rather, she points out that they definitely did more harm than good. If they were not the impetus that set off the disorder, the graphics she was so bo mbarded with seemed to encourage it: ‘the images definitely perpetuated the hatred I had for my own body’ (2001). To test her theory, the research team at Marie Claire formed a focus group of young, bright, accomplished women. The women were asked a series of questions about their bodies, after which they were free to peruse a selected group of magazines for approximately an hour. When the hour was up, the same questions were asked this time, the answers were very different. ‘Their self-esteem had plummeted’ Jones writes (2001). As the literature and research to be presented in this paper shows, the results of Ms. Jones informal sociological study was very close to the truth: her instincts were right on the mark. However, in hostile surroundings with little support, she was unable to follow them. It soon became clear that the tide of advertisers was far too strong a force to fight from within the industry, and she reached a point of no return: ‘I refuse to conform with an industry that could, literally, kill’ wrote Jones, a survivor. Chapter I. Background.A. Predecessors and Successors Liz Jones was not the first woman to struggle in the name of editorial change. Along with Jones, there were her American predecessors, Grace Mirabella of Vogue, and Gloria Steinem of Ms. In her autobiography, In and Out of Vogue, Mirabella writes about receiving a virtual threat from her publishers, ordering her not to include any articles that criticised cigarette smoking. She was told there should not be even a hint that there might be medical risks associated with nicotine use despite the fact that evidence had already been made known to the public that such risks existed. The reason for this was advertising, the lifeblood of the magazine. Millions and millions of dollars were poured into magazine advertisements by tobacco giants. This gave tobacco manufacturers a sense of power, a right to have input, or even to dictate, what made up the content of the publications they advertised in. They made it clear that any disparagement of their product however valid would result in thei r immediately pulling their advertisements and discontinuing their sponsorship (Mirabella, 1995). Unable or unwilling to risk this, the publishers of Vogue passed on the restrictions to Mirabella. The fact that the health of female readers who also supported the magazine by purchasing it might have been compromised was virtually a non-issue. Another of Jones’ predecessors was American feminist Gloria Steinem, whose magazine Ms. was groundbreaking in a number of ways, and especially in its handling of advertisements. The editors of Ms. Magazine battled constantly with advertisers who contributed to the magazine’s coffers. Noted writer Marilyn French discusses the battles Ms. had with both Clairol and Revlon, two of its major sponsors. Both cases share similarities with the Vogue situation and are worth mentioning. Both companies withdrew their advertisements and cut off funding, each for different but equally significant reasons. Clairol did this after Ms. ran text that included information about medical studies that suggested the possibility of there being carcinogens in hair-dye products. Clairol, well known for its hair-care products, had regularly placed advertisements in the magazine until a disturbing article appeared alongside them, addressing the possibility of carcinogenic content in hair dyes. The topic had already been made public, and was, in fact, the topic of congressional proceedings at the time. In addition, the possibility of cancer-causing agents was widely reported in newspapers and other publications. Still, Clairol was not pleased to have that information appear in the same publication in which it placed advertisements for that very product. The advertisements were removed. Revlon’s reason for cutting off Ms. was slightly different, and certainly less compelling. Revlon executives were disgruntled with the appearance of a cover photograph which showed faces of women from the Soviet Union it was the cover story, and one which they had initially supported. The subject area was something rarely written about at that time, about a populist movement in Afghanistan, and was considered quite an achievement by many, both from within and outside the industry. However, the women in the photos were not wearing Revlon products they were not wearing makeup at all. The company found this objectionable because if the women were not wearing makeup, the cover story was not selling Revlon products(French, 1992: 171). That was enough for Revlon. The advertisements were removed. Later on came an editor from Australia: Cyndi Tebbel, who headed New Woman Australia in 1996. For a year and a half, Tebbel focused on self-help that could not be equated with self-flagellation: she said â€Å"no† to diets, â€Å"yes† to relationship and career advice. In 1997, near the end of her leadership, she published a groundbreaking issue embracing the concept of and featuring large-size models. Although the original strap was ‘Fat Is Back’, the issue finally ran as ‘The Big Issue’. Sales did not plummet, but neither did they soar. Still ‘The Big Issue’ was perceived as ‘unglamorous’, and did little to win support for Tebbel’s cause. Shortly after its publication, Tebbel resigned. There are more and more editors like this as well as writers, designers, photographers, even fashion models themselves who are ‘coming out’ as true supporters of women ‘as they are’. This is, no doubt, due in good part to the work of those that came before. However, they are still a minority, albeit a strong one. B. Fashion Victims What is it that women want? In her book Fashion Victim, editor and writer Michelle Lee raises a number of valid points as she attempts to answer this question.She speculates on what would happen if mainstream magazines began to feature plus-size, or even slightly plump models on their front covers: ‘Even if magazines showed heavier body types on a regular basis, would consumers really respond positively?’ She answers the question by explaining that in theory, we like the idea of showing realistic portrayals of ‘real’ women but the truth is that we don’t like to see them. ‘We appreciate the idea of magazines that use larger models’ Lee asserts. ‘We’re glad they exist. We like the idea of magazines that show more â€Å"realistic† sizes. The only problem is that we don’t buy them, and then they go out of business’ (Lee, 2003: 144). She follows this statement with statistics to underscore her point. The poin t that truly needs to be addressed here, however, is not the fact that we don’t buy magazines that feature the truest images of our selves: but rather, the reason we don’t we buy them. Why don’t we buy them? What is wrong with these magazines that show us who we really are? Or rather: what is wrong with these images of our less-than-perfect ‘selves’? ‘With all of these studies pointing to the public’s apparent need and desire for more â€Å"realistic† body shapes, it would seem likely that magazine publishers would bow to public pressure’, asserts Lee. Apparently, the magazine publishers are one step ahead. They know that what people say is often very different from the ways in which they act. The proof, for them as well as for Lee, is in the numbers. ‘Magazine publishers know that survey respondents are more virtuous on paper than they are at the newsstand’, notes Lee. ‘Top editors and publishers know that thinner cover girls sell more issues’ (Lee, 2003: 139). The noted researcher Angela McRobbie echoes this, asserting that in Britain, ‘winning the hearts and minds of young women has become a social and political priority. There is now a hegemonic effort extended across the social field to win the consent of young women’ (2001: 201). Catering to the desires of th ese young women, then, means displaying covers that they want to see. The point for them is, after all, to sell and they sell by doing what works. What works is staying in business but to stay in business, magazines rely on their advertisers. Because the advertisers are the ones who foot the bill, they have considerable power when it comes to dictating the content of the articles that appear alongside their ads. As French explains it, ‘makers of products for women require women’s magazines (†¦) to print recipes and articles on beauty and fashion to highlight their ads, and further, to promote a certain kind of beauty, food, and fashion the accoutrements of woman-as-commodity’ (1992: 171). Advertisers are also concerned that when their products appear in women’s magazines, they will decrease in value. The association of the product with women is thought to somehow debase it: ‘Many advertisers avoid women’s magazines entirely, fearing that a product that becomes associated with women will be devalued for men. . . .To be assured of advertising revenue, women’s magazines must be vapid, contentless’ (French, 1992: 172). C. Playing Both Sides In addition, advertisers seem to want it both ways they want to sell products to women, and they want to be perceived as supportive of women. Often, these two desires art at odds with each other. On a superficial level, most magazines do a good job of including titles and headlines that, on a cursory reading, appear to do both at the same time. And, as we have seen, ‘real’ women on the cover don’t sell consistently high numbers of magazines for the major publications. As sophisticated as young women may be today, they are still imprisoned in societal expectations. McRobbie asserts that ‘the now normative irony (as knowingness) which pervades the contemporary popular culture and mass media in which young women find themselves accommodated to as post-feminist high achievers, actively disallows such inclinations’ [to be themselves] (2004: 508–509). She also explains that because of their success, these young women are removed from having to face some of the more unpleasant issues that are faced daily by less fortunate female counterparts. What feels like a luxury to them the avoidance of unpleasant realities actually strips them of power, unbeknownst to them. ‘Daily discouraged from the requirement to think or act with courage (as a privilege of the good fortune of living in the affluent liberal west)’ she writes ‘is of course an effective means of disempowerment’ (2004: 509). ‘The last thing magazines want to do is shoot themselves in the foot by admitting that they play a role in creating negative body image’ notes Lee (2003: 140). In order to be profitable and keep their public persona intact, they work from different angles: ‘they do their best to help women break out of that mind-set. But at the same time, they can’t ignore that readers do want to lose weight (or, as most magazines now call it, â€Å"get fit†), so they’re forced to play both sides’ (Lee, 2003: 140). Hence, a single edition of a magazine or, as the later analysis of Cosmopolitan and Marie Claire will demonstrate, may contain contradictory messages on the cover, in the Table of Contents, in the advertising, and in the articles themselves.   Ã¢â‚¬ËœAll magazines are to some degree controlled by advertisers; even supposedly independent news magazines use â€Å"soft† cover stories to sell ads’, asserts French (1992: 171). Thi s control is unavoidable, since advertising is what funds the publications in the first place. Additionally, notes French, all magazines ‘censor articles that might disturb big advertisers or the government (1992: 171). Private backing is an unrealistic solution to this problem because generally, the backers are men: ‘Women’s magazines generally cannot attract such private backing because few women have money’ (French, 1992: 171). As a result, magazines are heavily pressured to include content that advertisers want. There is little choice in this, because to go against the wishers of those who provide the funds is to risk losing the funds and perhaps losing the magazine as well. McRobbie underscores this point, explaining that media ‘have long been seen to be embedded in the fabric of society’ What is new about this, she asserts, is that the power exerted by the media has become stronger than ever. ‘What may be constitutively new is the degree to which media have become something with which the social is continuously being defined’ (McRobbie, 2000: 193). The situation is exacerbated because fashion media cannot lash out against this. ‘Much of the fashion media’s lack of criticism seems to stem from its financial dependence on the industry it covers’ asserts Lee (2003: 100). She notes that ‘fashion magazines have long been among the targets of eating-disorders studies. And many of the results have been damning’ (Lee, 2003: 139). Few would argue the validity of this notion. In fact, most women and most men as well would not need to see evidence. The idea that media dictate the mindsets of young people is not new. In Reviving Ophelia, Feminist Mary Pipher points out that ‘the omnipresent media consistently portrays desirable women as thin’, while ‘models and beautiful women are portrayed as thinner’ even as real women grow heavier. (1994: 216). ‘Underlying advertisers’ constraints is the fear shared by the male establishment generally, that women with a stronger self-image might no longer be willing to remain a servant class, might even unite against exploitation’ notes French (1992: 172–173). She explains that in order to keep a particular segment of the population subordinate, one must first convince the members of that segment that they deserve to be treated this way, usually because of some flaw or inferiority inherent in the group. ‘A person of an inferior group cannot be the author of her or his own life but must center on the superior group’ (French, 1992: 173). Chapter IIFeminism and the Growth of Women’s MagazinesA. Women: A User’s Guide In her volume Feminism, Femininity, and Popular Culture, British scholar Joann Hollows points out that ‘for feminist critics, girls’ magazines have been seen as significant because of their power to define and shape teenage femininities (2000: 167). She goes notes that the ways in which magazines have shaped girls’ development has shifted over the years; the impact is just as strong if not stronger but the means of wielding that power has been transformed. Until the 1980s and 1990s, girls became ‘hooked’ on the idea of physical seduction. Then the ‘hook’ became another form of seduction what Hollows, McRobbie and others call ‘the seduction of buying’ (Hollows, 2000: 171). Of course, McRobbie’s extensive studies and analyses of girls’ magazines provide a wealth of material on this subject. But both the development of the magazine format and the topic of femininity are inextricably intertwined. Hollows also exp lains that ‘feminisms differed in their form and character in different geographical contexts. However, if we take the cases of the UK and US, we can see some similarities in feminist concerns, despite the crucial differences between the forms of feminism which were created’ (2000: 3). It might be worthwhile, then to look into the history of the magazine itself, and to explore how, though developing in places that were geographically distant from each other, the genre ended up being very similar. American researcher Terry Poulton discusses the early days of women’s magazines as ‘the advent of a means of communication by which women could be taught what was expected of them, beauty-wise’, (1997: 30). It was, in essence, a sort of ‘user’s manual’ for women, teaching them what they wanted (assuming they all wanted the same things), and how to act in socially appropriate ways in order to get these things. There was no choice involved, because expectations at that time were rigidly set. Going against what was socially acceptable simply was not an option, and any leanings in the ‘wrong’ direction would most certainly be met with censure and/or ostracism. What Poulton refers to as an operator’s manual was, of cou rse, the beginning of the woman’s magazine. Of course, women had been learning these lessons for years, but never before from a standardized source that would keep them updated of changes on a timely and regular basis. The introduction of women’s magazines bestowed upon those who produced them incredible amounts of power the power to influence women, and in myriad ways. The ways women thought, the way they acted, and of course the way they looked were largely molded by the words and images that arrived in their monthly ‘users’ guides’. As Poulton puts it, ‘what had been missing for centuries a way to deliver visual images to masses of potential consumers had finally arrived’ (1997: 30). B. From Godey’s Lady’s Book to ‘Scientifically Precise’ Fashion Among the first women’s magazines were the U.S. publications Ladies Magazine in 1828, followed a short time later by Godey’s Lady’s Book, in the same year. According to Poulton, ‘thin was in for the first time’ with the advent of these publications. In fact, they are commonly thought to be at least partly responsible for precipitating a diet craze in the United States the first of many (1997: 29). Poulton explains that a foreshadowing of eating disorders also appeared during this time, when an article that appeared in Godey’s Lady’s Book discussed the tragic story of a woman named Louise. Apparently distraught after being ridiculed for her size, she decided to take action. She embarked on a grueling and unhealthy reducing regimen that consisted of a single glass of vinegar each day. Apparently, it worked on one level: she did reduce her size. However, we may ask, at what price? In a matter of months, according to the story, Louise wa s dead (Poulton, 1997: 29–30). In Great Britain, a comparable publication came along in 1872. Entitled The Ladies: A Journal of the Court, Fashion and Society, this publication presented fashion tips from a ‘scientifically precise’ perspective. Historian Virginia Cope explains that it also had clear political messages, with overt pieces in which the need for more political rights for women were discussed. The publication catered to upper-class London women, but appealed to middle-class women as well. The way the American publications served as ‘operator’s manuals’ for women in the U.S., so too did The Ladies for British society women. In this case, however, the guide was originally targeted at the higher classes; however, it soon became a primer for those middle-class women who wanted to rise socially. Implicit in the articles about housekeeping and fashion were lessons to the under classes in how to behave like their more elite counterparts. The ultimate hope that perhaps they wou ld one day be accepted by them was, of course, implicit, and dangled like a carrot to keep them purchasing the magazine each month. However, it seems that The Ladies wasn’t offering quite enough to ladies of either class: the publication did not last long, crumbling after a mere nine months. Even so, it serves as a reflection of British society at the time, which was becoming one of instability and constant flux. Whereas during the days of Queen Victoria’s reign, women’s place was thought to be at home, this gradually began to change and a type of feminism took root. As Britain became more and more industrialised, roles of men and women shifted. Similar changes took place in the United States. Publications of the time from both sides of the ocean like The Ladies and Godey’s Lady’s Book bear witness to this. The power these early publications held over some women is even more significant when one considers that the artistic renderings included in them the ‘graphics’ were just drawings. Photography would not become a part of the process for many years: the age of photographic reproduction was still far off, so images included in the magazines were sketches of varying quality and proportion; these drawings were highly exaggerated and understood to be idealized and unrealistic. Even so, the women who read these early publications still felt their impact, and the pressure to conform was felt by many. This influence would greatly increase when actual photographs replaced the drawings as part of the deceptively seductive advertising package. C. ‘The Camera Doesn’t Lie’ The inclusion of actual photographs in magazines heralded change a dramatic and significant change. No longer were articles accompanied by fanciful renderings of what women should look like now there were actual, live models against which readers could measure themselves. ‘With the mistaken conviction that cameras cannot lie, it was clear sailing for what came to be called â€Å"the tyranny of fashion†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢, explains Poulton. ‘From now on, women would feel obliged to remodel their body shape in favor of the prevailing silhouette’ (Poulton, 1997: 30). There was a scientific precision that photography offered, and it wielded much more power than the often whimsical and sometimes anatomically impossible renderings of a human hand. Yet photography was merely the precursor to what would come next, as magazines became inextricably bound to the world of marketing: ‘Poised on the threshold was another kind of tyranny that would be inimical to women’ s ability to feel at peace with their bodies: advertising’ (Poulton, 1997: 30). The setup was ingenious: magazines, through both text and photography, would introduce new ideas to women, particularly about ways in which they failed to meet prevailing standards. At the same time perhaps even on the same page would be an advertisement for a product that would help them ‘improve’ what they now knew to be flawed parts of themselves. Cinematic portrayals soon became a part of this complex process. As French points out, ‘the debasement of women in art and advertising is echoed in cinematic images’ (1992: 164). This was true then, and remains true now. Perhaps no one puts this more succinctly than the American feminist Gloria Steinem, founding editor of Ms., who breaks the process into three parts: â€Å"to create a desire for products, instruct in the use of products, and make products a crucial part of gaining social approval’ (Steinem, quoted in Poulton, 1997: 30). D. Twiggy: Thin Becomes ‘In’ Weight-loss issues did not gain true prominence until the years following World War I. At that point, corpulence became another problem that women had to deal with. Women began to get more and more messages that indicated that extra weight was taboo. These messages were often tied in complex ways to issues of ability, intelligence, and even morality For help, Poulton explains, the typical woman would turn to magazines for help: ‘What was a woman to do if she was guilty of the new â€Å"crime† of corpulence? Why, just flip the pages of her favourite magazine until she found an article or an ad promoting the very latest in reducing schemes, potion, gimmicks, gadgets, and gizmos’ (Poulton, 1997: 33). This continual reinforcement of the message that being overweight was unacceptable left a comfortable niche for marketers of weight-reducing schemes to claim. The introduction of Lesley Hornby signified a major change for women on both continents. The British-born Hornby better known as ‘Twiggy’ became an overnight international sensation. She is considered by many to be the ‘world’s first supermodel’. Twiggy’s debut onto the New York scene was another turning point. ‘Within a year after Twiggy’s debut, the editorial and advertising cheering sections at women’s magazines had shifted into high gear and added exercising to their lists of must-do’s’ explains Poulton. Thinness as personified by Twiggy was an absolute must, and this dictum was treated with stringent rigidity. Poulton uses an excerpt from a Mademoiselle article of the period: ‘â€Å"Creampuffs, there’s no escape. Whip yourself into super shape and stay that way†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ (1997: 45). The attitudes taken were both imperative and encouraging not to mention confusing and set a tone tha t in coming years would grow much more severe. McRobbie refers to the ‘boyish femininity of the girls’ of this period as ‘best exemplified in the early fashion shots of Twiggy’ (2000: 20). The ‘Twiggy’ standard has not really changed much since storming the scene in the 70s. ‘The standard of beauty crystallized into a single dominant body image mandated by those who, knowingly or unwittingly, were doing the bidding of marketers’ notes Poulton (1997: 54). Styles changed radically hot pants, hip huggers, mini-skirts, maxi-skirts the list is endless. Throughout all this, the paradigm of thinness has remained the standard towards which women should strive. If thin was in, ‘too thin’ was even more acceptable and encouraged: ‘In the magazines and on the fashion runways, the twirling girls grew thinner and younger by the year. . . . Meanwhile, real women were getting plumper with every technological advance that made physical labor obsolete, and with every new fat-laden food that came on the market’ (Poulton, 1997: 59–60). Yet not all women were able to achieve this unrealistic standard, thus beginning a wave